For You Shall Know the Herbs That Will Heal You

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• Published: 27 November 2019

Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume fifteen, Commodity number:57 (2019) Cite this article

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Abstract

Background

Previous lists number from 55 to 176 plant species as "Biblical Medicinal Plants." Mod studies attest that many names on these lists are no longer valid. This situation arose due to former mistranslations and/or mistakes in botanical identification. Many previously recognized Biblical plants are in no way related to the flora of the Bible lands. Appropriately, the list needs revision.

Methods

We re-examine the list of possible medicinal plants in the Bible based on new studies in Hebrew Biblical philology and etymology, new studies on the Egyptian and Mesopotamian medicinal use of plants, on ethnobotany and on archaeobotany.

Results

In our survey, we suggest reducing this list to 45 plant species. Our contribution comprises twenty "newly" suggested Biblical Medicinal Plants. Just five species are mentioned straight equally medicinal plants in the Bible: Fig (Ficus carica), Nard (Nardostachys jatamansi), Hyssop (Origanum syriacum), balm of Gilead (Commiphora gileadensis) and Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum). No fewer than eighteen medicinal plants are mentioned in old Jewish mail-Biblical sources, in addition to those in the Bible. Nearly of these plants (15) are known besides in Egypt and Mesopotamia while three are from Egypt simply. Vii of our suggested species are not mentioned in the Bible or in the Jewish mail service-Biblical literature only were recorded every bit medicinal plants from Egypt, as well equally from Mesopotamia. It is quite logical to presume that they tin be included every bit Biblical Medicinal Plants.

Conclusions

All our suggested Biblical Medicinal Plants are known as such in Ancient Egypt and/or Mesopotamia likewise. Examination of our listing shows that all these plants accept been in continuous medicinal use in the Middle Due east down the generations, besides as being used in the Holy Land today. Precisely in King Solomon's words, "That which has been is what will be, that which is done is what volition be washed. And in that location is nothing new under the lord's day" (Ecclesiastes i:9).

Background

Identification of Biblical plants

Near of the massive inquiry on the identity of Biblical plant names is based on linguistics and philology [i,2,3,iv,5,6,7,8 and references therein]. Włodarczyk [9] reviewed "how many plants are mentioned in the Bible" and concluded that the listing contains 206 establish names, 95 of which "are recognized by all contemporary researchers of the floras of the Bible." This discrepancy is not at all surprising since most authors of books on plants of the Bible [4, x,11,12,13,14,15,16,17 a except three, five,6,7] were not familiar with Hebrew and/or the Holy Country flora. For example, Duke [1] enumerates at to the lowest degree 176 species equally "Biblical Medicinal Plants" (hence BMPs), while the total number of recognized plants in the Bible is most 100 [8]. Needless to say, as well many species of his listing are not related at all to the flora in the region and were never grown or traded in the ancient Middle East. Jacob [2] listed 55 plants (most on a species level only some on a genus level) as BMPs, based on a comparison to Aboriginal Egyptian and Mesopotamian literature.

Amar [8] revised the flora of the Bible, based particularly on former Jewish mail service-Biblical sources and their succession downward the generations. He bundled all the traditional found names in several categories co-ordinate to identification reliability: (a) plant names identified with certainty (xl); (b) plant names identified at a loftier reliability level (11); (c) plant names whose identification is on a high reliability level only not fail-safety (22); (d) constitute names that are unidentifiable or whose identification reliability is very low (13); (e) accumulative names and not-species-specific names similar "thorn" or "lily" (twenty); (f) names suspected of not being related to plants at all (35). Thus, later on Amar's rigorous scrutiny, we take some 75 "valid" institute names, which are regarded with some identification validity. The Mishna and the Talmud mention about 400 establish names [3], 43 of which are mentioned in relation to medicine [18]. In most cases of disagreement among the leading authorities [3,4,5,6,vii], nosotros chose to follow Amar's [8] (see the word for few exceptions).

Identification of Ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian plants

Plants are undoubtedly the main source for curing and alleviating diseases in Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Both civilizations belong to the earth of the Former Testament, which explains why a short survey most their knowledge of medicinal plants is included. In the strict sense, Mesopotamia refers to the "land between the rivers," namely the Tigris and Euphrates, but the region includes the area most of now Iraq, eastern Syrian arab republic and southeastern Turkey. While the first written documents, namely clay tablets, date to the stop of the 4th millennium BCE the main information on medicinal plants comes from cuneiform tablets dating to the 2nd and first millennia BCE. Ancient Egypt spans the region of the Nile Valley, reaching areas east and w of it forth the Mediterranean coast; to the southward, Aboriginal Egypt stretched deep into the north of modern Sudan. The outset hieroglyphic texts on medicine appointment to the center of the second millennium BCE. The pharmacopoeia of both cultures included more than 200 plants, most of which cannot be identified. Ethnobotanical studies (east.thou. Borchardt [19:190]) often refer to the pioneering piece of work of Campbell Thompson [xx] for the identification of Mesopotamian constitute terms, or von Deines and Grapow [21] for ancient Egypt; they are unaware of the present, ofttimes highly specialized, linguistic and philological discussions in the fields of Assyriology and Egyptology. Philologists such as the Egyptologist Pommerening [22] or the Assyriologist Böck [23] attest to the need to challenge and revise the methodology used so far to identify ancient Egyptian and aboriginal Mesopotamian plant terms. The comunis opinio in both fields of research is rather skeptical well-nigh the identification of found terms with bodily plants. In fact, revisions comparable to the comprehensive piece of work of Amar [8] on the Biblical flora are still in process. Every bit for aboriginal Mesopotamia, identifying language terms in Akkadian, the language in which almost of the medical cuneiform texts are written, depends heavily on etymological research. This consists of collecting cognate terms in other Semitic languages such as Aramaic or Hebrew and applying identification of the Aramaic or Hebrew term to the Akkadian name. As a result, learning the identity of Akkadian plants depends basically on studies about the Aramaic and Hebrew terminology of plants (east.grand., Löw [3]). These identifications take entered the 2 bones dictionaries of the Akkadian language [24, 25] only have enjoyed scant discussion and revision.

The utilise of medicinal plants in the earth of the Old Testament

The ample number of medical recipes prescribing various "drug therapies" conspicuously shows the prominence of ingredients of vegetable origin in aboriginal Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt (eastward.m. [26, 27]).

In the Bible, very few cases related to the apply of plants for medicine, for example, the use of lotion to treat of sores (Jeremiah, 8, 22; 46, 11; 51, 8) and how King Hezekiah was treated with a fig (Two Kings twenty:7). Very rarely ethnobotanical information may help concerning the medicinal Biblical plants. An exception is the utilise of Origanum syriacum by the Samaritans in exactly the aforementioned manner as in Biblical times [28:71-two]. A few archaeological studies illuminate the utilize of medicinal plants in the Holy Country in Biblical times and even earlier. Written evidence exists from letters of Tel Al Amarna showing that the Rex of Gezer (Palestine, 14th BCE) asked for myrrh gum (Commiphora sp.) from Egypt for healing [29:29]. Langgut et al. [30] institute pollen of 3 medicinal plants (mint, sage blazon, and myrtle) in human feces from Megiddo (Late Bronze Age, 12–11th centuries BCE). Langgut et al. consider it (30: 382) "the possible use of different types of herbal teas." Weinstein-Evron [31] establish myrtle pollen in a rock mortar from Megiddo (Iron Age 12–11th centuries BCE). Grooming of powder from Myrtus leaves for medicine is also a practice still used today in Israel [32:210-211]. Koh et al. [33] analyzed the organic residues of wine jars found in a courtyard in the Middle Bronze Age (ca 1900–1600 BCE) in a Canaanite palace at Tel Kabri (13 km north of Haifa, Israel). The additives seem to have included honey, Storax resin (Liquidambar orientalis), Terebinth resin (Pistacia lentiscus/P. palaestina), Cedar oil (Cedrus libani), Cyperus (Cyperus rotundus) and Juniper (Juniperus communis/J. phoenicea), and perhaps even mint, myrtle, or cinnamon. They concluded that "the plants' materials were used to preserve wine (every bit resins), as well as a medicine already known from Aboriginal Egypt" [34]. They also mentioned that "these additives propose a sophisticated understanding of the botanical landscape and the pharmacopeic skills necessary to produce a circuitous beverage that balanced preservation, palatability, and psychoactivity." Namdar et al. [35] found cinnamon residues in old wine flasks from Tel Dor (30 km south of Haifa, Israel). The flasks, originating in Phoenicia, were from the early Iron Age, namely 11th to mid-ninth centuries BCE. Kislev et al. [36] studied the remains of flax (Linum usitatissimum) from the early Iron Historic period (12th century BCE, belatedly 20th dynasty in Arab republic of egypt) site of Tel Beth-Shean (70 km SE of Haifa, State of israel). Similar written sources of its uses, they suggest that function of the flax seeds was intended as a food component or for extracting medicinal oil. Weiss and Kislev [37] found 1 stone of bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) in Ashkelon (150 km s of Haifa, Israel l7th century BCE). The plant does not grow in that area, and then the establish was probably taken for medicinal purposes.

Magic and medicine in the world of the Quondam Testament

In the ancient world, there is no clear-cut distinction between ritual/magic and medicinal uses of the same plant (especially incense) [38:12, 37: 39 passim, 40: passim, 41: passim]. Medical practices in Egypt [41: passim] and in Mesopotamia [42: 415-425] involved, in addition to the utilise of medicinal plants, rituals and incantations.

The Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian healing practitioners did not contrast or distinguish magical from pharmaceutical cures—both forms of healing were considered equally effective (for Egypt encounter 43; for Mesopotamia see 44). The two ancient cultures shared another characteristic: they did non invent terms that would denote "medicine" or "magic." Illness and affliction could exist acquired by an array of incidents from natural causes to the supernatural influence of deities and demons or sinful behavior (for Egypt encounter 41: 96-112, for Mesopotamia see 45: thirty-31). The healers seem not to have chosen their cures co-ordinate to the crusade of the disease. It is useful to differentiate healing cures accompanied past incantations from purely exorcist practices. In Mesopotamia, demons were deemed responsible for diseases [44: 179-180, 45: 27-39,] while in Egypt, it was evil spirits [41: 96-112]. Thus, healers likewise practiced magic and exorcism as part of the healing. In the Bible, magic and exorcism were forbidden [46:517-519]. In Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia, sin was believed to be sanctioned with disease [47: 97-99]. Krymow [48:16] has noted that "The Israelites knew the medical practices of the Egyptians and took this cognition with them, but the Israelites' priests taught the people to look to God for assist." A similar view is expressed by Harrison [38:fourteen]: "The religious tradition of the early Biblical menstruum took exception to the idea of trying to cure the diseased body, since it was believed that God alone was the neat healer." Our paper, set out to re-examine the list of possible medicinal plants in the Bible based on new studies in Hebrew Biblical philology and etymology, and on new studies on Egyptian and Mesopotamian medicinal use of plants, ethnobotany, and archaeobotany. Special attention is given to the history and the knowledge of medicinal uses for indigenous flora of the Holy State and the ancient trade in plants and their products.

This paper does not aim at a detailed catalogue of specific uses for each institute in each culture. Our report is limited to re-examining questions arising from the list of actual and potential medicinal plants of the Bible.

Methods

Working assumptions and problems in the identification of Biblical found names:

1. one.

   Some problems regarding the identity of Biblical establish names originated from misunderstandings of the original Hebrew version in which many plant names are not clear. A new study of the flora in the Old Testament [eight] provides new telescopic concerning plants mentioned in the Bible, while assessing the reliability of all previously suggested botanical identifications of plant names. Plant names in the New Testament have been revised in recent dictionaries, east.g., Greek-English language Biblical dictionaries [49, 50] and translations [e.yard., 51]. Similar bug arose over modern references concerned with plants in the Talmud [xviii, 52, 53].

2. ii.

   The same establish may accept several names even in the same country [32 passim, 44: 132, 54:43, 55:7, 56:51]. The same name of a institute may refer to more than one botanical species and/or genera [55-58: passim]. Plants that are heavily used in medicine and witchcraft tend to have many local names (e.g., Mandrake [57]). Plant names may change down the generations; some old names may be discarded or forgotten even in the same language [58:520].

3. 3.

   The old translators of the Bible, e.one thousand., Male monarch James Version (1611 and others, see iv:seven-11), were non familiar with the original Hebrew, nor with the flora of the Holy Country. So, sometimes, they mentioned names from their local floras; this might too have been washed deliberately to brand the plants more familiar to their own readers.

4. 4.

   In general, the Bible does not refer straight to plants, most of which are mentioned in passing. The chances that a specific plant would be connected straight with a medicinal apply are even lower. Linguistic remains, ethnobotanical also as archaeobotanical, may help, merely they are not evidence of possible specific medicinal uses.

5. 5.

   When studying plants not mentioned in the Bible only in the Talmud, in a medicinal context, we have to remember that Talmudic medicine may have Hellenistic and Egyptian influences [59: xiii, 53:29-31]. If these plants are as well recorded as medicinal plants from Mesopotamia, this may reduce that kind of bias.

6. 6.

   New works, especially on the identification of Assyrian plant names [24, 56, 44:129-163, 60] considerably extend the spectrum of validating plant names and changing previous conceptions. All previous works on Biblical plants [e.thou., 2, 4, half dozen-eight, fifteen, 16] were based solely on Campbell-Thompson [20], who had been highly criticized [61:492, 62:3, 63:326]. Jacob [2] was criticized by Geller [63:326] because he "assumes that the existence of a plant is sufficient to identify information technology inside the Egyptian and Akkadian pharmacopeia, entirely ignoring the considerable philological problems in such methodology."

7. 7.

   Information technology is logical to assume that plants (or their products such every bit spices and incense), which had medicinal uses in Egypt and Mesopotamia, were too known in the Holy Country in Biblical times, even if these plants are not mentioned directly in the Bible [2:29, 64:69-70]. Cultivated plants (or their products), which are mentioned in the Talmud as medicinal plants and are also documented in Egypt, Mesopotamia and/or from archaeological bear witness, are considered to have been present in the Holy Land in Biblical times. This approach is based on the evidence of intensive ancient apply of and trade in medicinal plants all over the Fertile Crescent [19:188, 64:69]. Remember too that some medicinal plants were introduced into Egypt by way of Palestine [64:71]. Manniche [65: 61] pondered how to decide whether or non a certain Egyptian species was actually a "medicinal plant." She ended: "The bodily remains of a plant…must exist supported by some indication of the employ of plant—ideally—in the Egyptian texts; in texts from contemporary neighboring civilizations …." In Palestine, plant remains are quite rare (compared with Egypt); hence, a comparison with other contemporary cultures from the Bible period is of prime importance when because the medical utilise of a given plant species".

Procedures: i. Checking the validity of the identification of the medicinal plant names in the Bible according to Amar ([viii] meet above). We discard all previous lists of plant names that were supposedly mentioned in the Bible based on old mistranslations [come across 66]. Many of these are not ethnic to the Holy Land at all or were never introduced.

2. Reconstruction of the inventory of potential BMPs was attempted, based on comparative information from Aboriginal Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia. The medicinal plants of Egypt and Mesopotamia were surveyed, keeping with the contempo literature, in an attempt to recognize species, or products thereof, related to Biblical times. We limited ourselves to any literary evidence that a certain species had whatsoever medicinal utilize; nosotros did non prepare out to compare the different regions/cultures on the specific uses amid them.

three. We also used complementary data from post-Biblical sources: Mishna (3rd century CE) and the Babylonian Talmud (third–5th centuries CE). We considered just plants referred to explicitly for medical uses and already known medicinally from Egypt and/or Mesopotamia, and/or from archaeological prove. Concerning the identification of plants in the Talmud, in cases of disagreement, we followed the most modernistic commentary of Steinsaltz [67] (whose botanical advisor is the authoritative archaeobotanist and Talmudist M.E. Kislev). As a result, several of the previous identifications [3, eighteen] are not recognized today.

four. Technically, we divided the surveyed plants into four classes, co-ordinate to level of certainty as to their possible use every bit medicinal plants in Biblical times, based on identification reliability according to [viii], besides as on subsidiary evidence: plants used or mentioned explicitly as medicinal in the Bible (Table 1); plants mentioned in the Bible and known equally medicinal in Ancient Egypt and in Mesopotamia (Table 2); plants not cited in the Bible simply mentioned equally medicinal in post-Biblical sources and/or Egypt and/or Mesopotamia (Tabular array 3); and diverse patterns (Tabular array 4).

Tabular array 1 Plants used or mentioned explicitly equally medicinal in the Bible

Full size table

Tabular array 2: Plants mentioned in the Bible and known every bit medicinal in Ancient Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia

Full size table

Table three Plants non cited in the Bible but mentioned as medicinal in post-Biblical sources and/or in Egypt and/or Mesopotamia

Full size table

Table 4 Various patterns

Total size table

Results and give-and-take

Give-and-take

Only five species (Tabular array 1) are mentioned explicitly as medicinal plants in the Bible: Fig (Ficus carica), Nard (Nardostachys jatamansi), Hyssop (Origanum syriacum), "Balm of Gilead" (Commiphora sp.) and Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) (Table 1). Twenty-7 species come under the category "Plants which are mentioned in the Bible and are known equally medicinal in Ancient Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia" (Table 2). Thirteen species are included as "Plants which are not cited in the Bible simply mentioned equally medicinal in the Talmud and/or Egypt and/or in Mesopotamia" (Tabular array 3). Six plants are classified under various patterns (Table 4).

At to the lowest degree xviii medicinal plants (Tables 2–4), in add-on to those in the Bible, are mentioned in the Talmud and or Mishna, virtually of which (15) are known also in Egypt and Mesopotamia, while 3 are only from Egypt. Since most of the post-Biblical citations are from the Babylonian Talmud, one may consider it as having influenced the local medicine of Babylonia (where this Talmud was written) rather than reflecting Biblical reality. The information indicating that all these species were as well known from Arab republic of egypt, strengthen the idea that the post-Biblical literature was not biased to Mesopotamian plants.

Vii of the suggested species (Table iv) are non mentioned in the Bible or in the Talmud simply were recorded as medicinal plants from Egypt, as well as from Mesopotamia; information technology is logical to assume that they can exist included as BMPs.

About lx% of our suggested BMPs are foreign species; twoscore% are indigenous, 60% are imported, 30% are domesticated (each plant can belong to more than than ane group). The main sources of strange imported species are Eastern asia (11%), Southwest asia (xi %), West and Southern asia (8%) and Arabia (4%).

The high proportion of imported plants (as medicinal materials) shows indirect evidence of prolific import in Biblical times [101,102,103,104]. Our list does not provide any bear witness that whatsoever species were cultivated/imported solely every bit medicinal plants; all had some additional use. Almost (87%) of the species had at least 1 additional use: for example, sixteen are edible, eight are used in rituals, 6 serve for perfume and cosmetics, and 5 are used equally incense.

Knuckles [1] enumerated 176 plant species as "Biblical Medicinal Plants," while Jacob [2] suggested just 55. In our survey, we suggest reducing that number to 45 (Tables 1-4). The overlap betwixt Jacob's list and ours was 29 species in total. Our contribution is 20 "new" suggested BMPs. Information technology is noteworthy that some Biblical names are related to the genus level (east.g., Artemisia), or also to two genera every bit in the case of Cupressus/Juniperus.

The discrepancy between Jacob'due south list and ours is due to the following: (1) At least 22 species in Jacob's listing are not recognized today as valid "Biblical plants" at all, or they are not related to any specific plant species or genus [eight]. (2) Several identifications from Campbell–Thompson [20], the simply Mesopotamian source used by Jacob, are no longer recognized by modern Assyriologists. (iii) Several Mesopotamian plants were just recently identified in a medical context. (4) New recent palynological as well archaeological data allow u.s.a. to corroborate the possibility of Biblical medicinal uses of some plants.

We excluded about 24 plant species from Jacob's list [2] for the post-obit reasons: they are no longer recognized by Amar [8] as plants, or the reliability of identification level is below "low probability of identification" or is an "aggregate name" and non a species-specific plant proper noun (hence, indicated as NR); the identification by Campbell–Thompson is no longer recognized today or cannot exist confirmed past any further evidence (NC-P); the constitute is unknown to the flora of the Holy State (NF); no evidence exists of international trading in the plant (NT); identification is obscure and/or non-specific (OB); they are recorded but from Egypt, with no further evidence related to the Holy Land (OE); they are found just in Mesopotamia (OM), with no information from Arab republic of egypt and/or Mesopotamia on whatever medicinal employ (EM).

These plants are (one) Zizyphus vulgaris Lam. [20: 319: ff; NF], Z. spina christi (L.) Wild. 65:158 (OE). (two) Papaver rhoeas L. (based on [70:327]). While Manniche [65:130-132] and Aboelsoud [68:85] mentioned that P. somniferum L. was used medicinally in Egypt, Bisset et al. [105] could not corroborate this information. Information technology is also debatable whether P. somniferum was known at all in the Holy Land in Biblical times [106-108]. (3) Nymphaea coerilea (sic!), Lotus L (sic!), based on Germer [70:26, 373, 375] (NF). Lotus sp. (NF, NT) appears in Manniche [65: 126-vii] under Nymphaea lotus (L.) Willd. (See 70:64, 26: 373, 375), (NF, R, NT). (4) Anemone coronaria 50. (NR); (v) Anthemis nobilis L., not in Arab republic of egypt [65], mentioned for Mesopotamia [20:117] (NF, NR, NT); (6) Colchicum autumanale 50., [20: 167] (NR, NF, NT). (7) Ranunculus sp., [20: 146, not in 65]. Twenty-four species of Ranunculus are known from Israel [109:192-198], non one of which is known locally as a medicinal institute [110,111]; (8) Urtica dioica Fifty., [xx: 209], (NR, NF, NT); (9) Quercus infectoria Oliv. , [xx:2470, (NF, NT); (10) Nerium oleander L. (non in Manniche [65]), mentioned for Mesopotamia [20:322]) (NR, NT); (11) Lolium temulentum L./ (Matthew thirteen:25), Schonfield [51:85] translated it every bit "weed" and added in note 21 "Wheat-similar weeds (Heb. Zunin, Gr. zizania), probably darnel." In the King James Version, it appears every bit "tares," which is identified as 50. temulentum [4:133-134], mentioned for Mesopotamia [20:148] (OM; (12) Triticum sp. (Emmer wheat) [65:152-3], Gittin 69b (EM); (13) Prunus amygdalus Batsch (= Prunus dulcis (Mill.) A.A. Webb) [70:224; 65:138-139], (OE); (14) Balanites aegyptiaca (L) Delile, according to Manniche [65:81], "Its utilise remains somewhat obscure" (NR); (15) Phragmates communis (sic!) (the valid synonym of Phagmites communis Trin (= P. australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud.) based on Germer [70:188,190] not in [65], (OE); (16) Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip., based on Germer [seventy:263] not in [65], (NR, NF); (17) Arundo donax L. [70:188,191) not in Manniche [65] (OE, NT); (18) Nymphaea lotus Fifty. [70: 26, 373, 375] (NF); (19) Cucumis melo 50. [70:124,373,375, 65:76] var. chate (Hasselq.) Sageret (OE, NT). Cyperus papyrus 50. [70:138,187,201,373,397, 65: 100] (OE, NT); (twenty) Cyperus esculentus L. [65:98, lxx:134,201,207,222,372,375] (OE, NF); (21) Thymus vulgaris L. known from Egypt [lxx:17] (NR); Thymus sp. in [65:150] (NR, OE, NF); (22) Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. [seventy:266)] (OE); (23) Salix safsaf Forssk. ex Trautv. [70:106,237,373; 65:145-76; 75:thirty; 69:42], willow buds (OE, NF); (24) Ficus sycomorus 50. [75:30; 69:41,79, 82] (OE).

The post-obit additional medicinal plant species are known simply from Ancient Arab republic of egypt; at the moment, no sufficient supporting data exist to consider them BMP'southward: Glycyrrhiza glabra L. [65:106]; Portulaca oleracea L. [65:thirteen 7-138]; Raphanus sativus L. [65:141-142]; Rubia tinctoria Salisb. (=Rubia tinctorum 50.) [65:144]; Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile [68:84; 65:65-67; 69:79, 88, 91, 92, 95, 97]; Acacia sp. [69: 39, 41, 42 glue, 88]). Ocimum basilicum L. [65:128; seventy:84]; Cannabis sativa L. [65:82].

Debatable species: "Ohalim / Ohalot". In the Bible "Ohalot" and "Ohalim" are mentioned four times—iii of them in relation to perfumes (Proverbs vii:17; Psalms 45: 9 and Song of Songs four: 14). Amar [eight: 156-7] concludes that the sometime Jewish interpreters agree only on the identification of "Ohalim" cited in Songs of Songs as Aquilaria agalocha Roxb. (= A. malaccensis Lam.). According to Amar [viii:156], this identification is on a level of "high probability just non certain." Felix [vi:255] considers all the citations related to "Aquilaria agallocha." Just Zohary [vii:204] considers only the Psalms citations, also equally John (19:309-40), equally related to Aquilaria agallocha /Aloe vera. In the Talmud (Gittin 69b), "Illava" is mentioned equally a medicinal plant. It is held to be Aloe vera by most of the former Jewish commentaries [4, I:150].

"Oren"—Pinus or Laurus nobilis? Amar [viii:158] takes "Oren" (Isa. 44:xiv-15) to exist Pinus halepensis Mill., under "A high level of the identification reliability merely not sure." Cedar in Akkadian is "Erenu" [112: 181-182]. In Campbell–Thompson's view [xx:282], "erini" or "erinu" is used equally a general term for the coniferous tree, a view not accepted today. In the Talmud (Gittin 69b), there is a remedy called Atarafa d'ara'a" (אטרפא) against stomach worms; "tarfa" ways a leafage and "de'ara'a" is translated by A. Steinsaltz [67] (in his commentary to Gittin 69b) every bit Laurus nobilis, based on the proper noun of this species in other Semitic languages as "ar."

Campbell–Thompson [20:298] mentions "ēru" (which he identifies every bit L. nobilis) against "anus troubles"; this identification cannot be confirmed or denied considering of the lack of sufficient cuneiform evidence. Therefore, Feliks's [6:92] and Zohary'southward [7:120] acceptance of "Oren" as Laurus has no solid evidence. It is worth mentioning that, as a rule that Campbell–Thompson'south [20] identification is based mainly on Aramaic and Hebrew terms. And then, following Campbell–Thompson, to clarify the Biblical plant terms, this might end in a cruel circle!

Ceratonia siliqua. Despite the debate over whether Ceratonia is mentioned in the Bible [3, I: 393-407, 4:72-73; 113:passim, 114: passim], the constitute clearly was widely distributed in the Holy Country every bit an indigenous species [115]. The few archaeological findings of Ceratonia as: phytolites [116:1259]; wood [113:85; 117:112]; seed and fruits [118:101; 37:four] also equally pollen [119:12,eighteen] indicate its presence in the Holy Land in the Bible period and before. All of the authorities agree that information technology was nowadays here naturally, fifty-fifty if it is not mentioned directly in the Sometime Testament [113, 114, 116, 117 and references therein]. There is a contend [120: specimen No. 41; 4: 72-73; 7:63 and reference therein] if the "Locust" cited in Matthew three:4 and the "pods" of Luke 15:16 are actually Ceratonia . The many Jewish post-Biblical references indicate its high importance as a nutrient plant in the Holy State [121:203-204; 3, Ii: 393-407]. Indeed, the presence of the carob in the Holy Country during the Bible period is quite sure; it is a common medicinal plant in the region [rev. 122].

"Brosh"–Cupressus/Juniperus: Amar [8:159-161] discusses in detail the different Jewish historical suggestions for the identification of "brosh," and summarizes: "it seems that we are speaking on an aggregate name for both genera Cupressusouth and particularly Juniperus." Notably, Löw (Cupressus—[3, II:26-33] Juniperus—[3, Two: 33-38]) and Felix [half-dozen: 79-80] have the same view. According to Zohary [vii:106], "Information technology probably refers to Abies cilicica (Antoine & Kotchy) Carriére. Today, at that place is general agreement that the Akkadian word "burashu" denotes Juniper [112: 180-181). The Akkadian term for cypress is "shurmenu" [112: 184]. Some of the previous ideas on this result [122,123,125] are non accepted today.

"Kikkayyon"–Ricinus/Lagenaria: Amar [viii: 178-179] post-obit [126: 352-354] suggests that the identification of the Hebrew "Kikkayyon" every bit Ricinus communis is of a "high but not sure level of identification's reliability" and that it could too be Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. ( = Fifty. siceraria (Molina) Standl.). Although Lagenaria is known as a medicinal establish [127], it is not equally common a medicinal plant as Ricinus. Felix [6:136] mentions the possibility of Lagenaria being included, based on some old Jewish sources. He states that "the Talmudic tradition identifies 'Kikkayyon' equally Ricinus based on philology and the Geonim (the presidents of the great Babylonian Talmudic schools) evidence that this plant is common in Babylonia." Zohary [7:193] did non mention the possibility of Lagenaria at all. Nosotros adopt to relate "Kikkayyon" to Ricinus because of its wide use as an important medicinal establish in the ancient world since ancient times [rev.128], including the Talmudic menstruation (Shabbat 21a).

"La'ana"–Artemisia: According to Amar [8:163], the identification of the Biblical La'ana ((לענה is of "a low probability". He also noted several other candidates: Ecballium elaterium (50.) A. Rich., Citrullus colocynthis L., and Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.. All of these species are known equally important medicinal plants in the ancient Fertile Crescent (Artemisia spp. [129,130]); E. elaterium [rev. 58]; C. colocynthis [131] and B. aegyptiaca [132]. Feliks [6:200] opines: "It is common to identify La'ana every bit plants from the genus Artemisia which contain bitter juice." Zohary [7:184] identified two citations (Jeremiah 23:15 and Amos five:7 as Artemisia herba-alba Asso, simply "La'ana" appears in at least six more citations (Deuteronomy 29:eighteen, Job 30:4, Proverbs v:4, Lamentations iii:15 and xix, Hosea 10:iv, Amos 6:12). The wormwood mentioned in Revelations eight:11 appears as "Apsinthos" in the Greek version. Padosch et al. [133] commented: "The Greek equivalent to "Apsinthos" is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them biting. The Greek give-and-take "Apsinthion"—undrinkable—is nearly probably the ancestor of the word "absinthe." The Talmud (Abodah Zara 30a) mentions preparing a special "Apsintin wine," which is still produced today [133]. Thus, we prefer to treat "La'ana" as Artemisia spp., peculiarly A. herba alba, which is known as a common medicinal plant in the Middle East and Northward Africa [134,135,136]. A. absinthium L. is too well known equally a medicinal plant [139] and the broad utilize of A. absinthium in Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia (Table 1). B. aegyptiaca seems bars to rare oases [137] and E. elaterium is rarely mentioned in ancient sources from the Holy Land [58].

Conclusions

All our suggested BMPs are known equally such also in Aboriginal Arab republic of egypt and/or Mesopotamia (Tables one–four). Explicit evidence for employ of medicinal plants is very rare in the Bible too as in the Jewish mail-Biblical writings. The comparison to adjacent ancient civilizations (in time and space) enables the states to reconstruct the suggested listing of BMP's. Test of our list shows that all the plants in our suggested list are in continuous medicinal use in the Middle East downwards generations [138–139] and are used in the Holy Land today [137,138,139,141].

Shakya [142] published a review, "Medicinal plants: time to come source of new drugs." His "elevation 25 bioactive compounds of medicinal plants" include Ricinus communis, Piper nigrum, Aloe vera, Nigella sativa, Artemisia absinthium, and Allium sativum. This list accounts for 24% of our suggested listing of Biblical Medicinal Plants. As once spoken by Rex Solomon, "That which has been is what will be, That which is done is what will exist washed, And at that place is nothing new nether the sun" (Ecclesiastes one:9).

Availability of information and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article equally no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current written report.

Abbreviations

AR:

Archaeological bear witness from the Holy Land

B:

Old Attestation

BT:

Egypt

Chiliad:

Mishna

NT:

New Attestation

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Peter Raven, Peter Bernhardt and Efraim Lev for their practiced communication and continuous encouragement.

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Funding

BB' inquiry was funded by the research projection PGC2018-097821-B-100.

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Affiliations

1. Institute of Development and the Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa, State of israel

   Amots Dafni

2. Institute of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Languages and Cultures (ILC), Castilian National Inquiry Quango (CSIC), Madrid, Spain

   Barbara Böck

Contributions

BB conducted the literature search of Egypt and Mesopotamia. AD did also for the Jewish sources. The paper was written jointly. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Amots Dafni.

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Dafni, A., Böck, B. Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine fifteen, 57 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8

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• Received: 04 July 2019

• Accepted: 30 Oct 2019

• Published: 27 Nov 2019

• DOI : https://doi.org/ten.1186/s13002-019-0338-8

Keywords

• Bible
• Medicinal plants

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